Goldin, O'Keefe, and the international space station: Leadership and large-scale technological programs

Large-scale, long-term technological programs funded by government are extraordinarily difficult to begin, maintain, and complete. They must negotiate not only technical, but also the political hurdles. International connections add to the complexity. This paper analyzes the course of the International Space Station (ISS) from the perspective of the NASA administrator. The roles of Dan Goldin and Scan O'Keefe are discussed as illustrative of how federal executives can impact such programs. Much depends on when in the program's life cycle an administrator happens to serve and how long he or she serves. There are times when major decisions are possible, and the course of a program set for years. However, these strategic decisions also require tactical decisions along the way. A NASA administrator is the point in government where the political environment and technical realities must be harmonized if a space program is to succeed.